GUIDES ON WHEN TO APPLY CHI-SQUARE

Chi-square tests can be used in situations where the researcher is concerned about the differences or associations in proportions/ percentages for categorical variables and not numeric variables. Chi-square tests can be applied in situations where the data being considered takes the form of categorical variables such as gender, yes/no answers, job categories, and education levels. For instance, one can apply chi-square tests to find out if there exists any relationship between gender and the type of product that is referred to.. It can be used to test if the data from the observed frequency distribution corresponds to the data from the expected frequency distribution such as whether the observed number of students in various departments corresponds to an expected distribution based on some prior knowledge of the population. While t-test is concerned with the comparison of means, chi-square is concerned with frequencies, and it is normally applied in social sciences, health sciences, business and education since most of the variables involved are categorical. There are no preconditions for the use of chi-square except that the sample size should be large enough to yield dependable results, the values in each cell should be large enough and finally, the expected frequency in each cell should be 'large', meaning not less than 5. This is when chi-square is an elegant way of testing independence of two factors within a population.

  CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the Study

Gender-based violence(GBV) is one of the most common social problems against women worldwide. Gender-based violence can be defined as violence directed against a person because he or she is a woman or girl including physical emotional sexual violence rape stocks withholding, threats and abusive cultural practices.. The main victims of GBV include women and girls owing to the power imbalance between men and women and cultural practices. Despite the laws and regulations put in place to ensure the rights of women in Nigeria, there has been an increase in gender-based violence. The problem affects both rural and urban populations and has adverse effects on women's development (Babalola et al. 2026).

Women in Lokoja in Kogi State suffer violence at different places like home, workplace, schools, market places, and even in public places. Women here have to face domestic violence, sexual violence, early marriages, and emotional violence. These are some of the most common forms of GBV experienced by women in this place. Many women choose not to speak about this because they are afraid of being stigmatized and due to poverty, family pressure, and lack of trust on the law enforcement agencies. GBV in Lokoja has now become a great issue for the reason that it prevents women from contributing to family and community development. As per UNFPA (2026), GBV restricts women’s access to education, healthcare, jobs, and society..

The socio-economic consequence of gender- based violence on women is immense. The victims endure physical injury, mental and emotional trauma and instability, depression and low self-esteem. These can reduce the ability of women to economically participate and partake in activities and for many, they lose employment, entrepreneurial ventures and educational opportunities due to violence. In many cases, they become financially dependent relatives and/or abusive spouses thereby worsened poverty and inequality. It has been reported that economic deprivation and unemployment are both cause and effect factors of gender- based violence in Nigeria (Fawole et al. 2026).

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Moreover, GBV impacts not only individuals but also their families and the entire society. The children from violent homes might undergo psychological trauma and perform poorly academically. The community itself suffers from GBV since women are crucial members for social and economic development. Consequently, when these individuals are denied safety and equality, then the development of the society becomes restricted. Research studies have also shown that ineffective enforcement of legislation, lack of knowledge regarding women’s rights, and culture of male dominance contribute to GBV in Nigeria (WRAPA, 2026).

Although several measures have been adopted by various government and non-governmental organizations in solving GBV problems, many women in Lokoja are still struggling with accessing justice and social services due to the negligence of these cases or informal resolution of issues within the family. This research intends to assess the issue of GBV and its socio-economic effects on women in Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria.   Statement of the Problem

Violence based on gender is now one of the most common social problems that have affected many women in Lokoja, Kogi State. Despite having laws and policies enacted for their safety, incidents of domestic violence, rape, sexual violence, and emotional abuse continue to escalate. Women suffer in silence due to fear, economic dependence, and social pressures. Gender-based violence has affected the health condition, productivity, incomes, and socio-economic engagement of women. The women who have been subjected to violence are normally poor, jobless, traumatized mentally and socially isolated. It becomes impossible for such women to be able to participate in the growth of the community. The availability of legal help and protection has been very limited in Lokoja. It is within this context that this research shall endeavor to find out the causes and impacts of gender-based violence in Lokoja...

Objectives of the Study

The key aim of this research is to asses the nature of gender-based violence and the socio-economic impact on women in Lokoja, Kogi State Nigeria. The specific objectives are:

1.Identify the different types of gender-based violence that women suffer from in Lokoja.

2.Explore the reasons for gender-based violence in Lokoja.

3.Establish the socio-economic consequences of gender-based violence on women.

4.Propose potential solutions to curb gender-based violence in Lokoja.

Significance of the Study This research will be valuable to government departments, NGOs, community leaders and students. The results obtained from this study will be useful to the government departments to formulate measures that will help curb gender-based violence and ensure that women’s rights are protected. The study will make the public aware of the socio-economic effects of GBV on women and society. It will also contribute to the body of knowledge and serve as primary sources of information to future researchers.   Scope of the Study

The study is on gender-based violence and its socio-economic impacts on women in Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria. The research focuses on the kinds, causes, impacts, and possible ways out of gender-based violence against women..

GUIDE ON WHEN TO APPLY CHI-SQUARE

Chi-square tests can be used in situations where the researcher is concerned about the differences or associations in proportions/ percentages for categorical variables and not numeric variables. Chi-square tests can be applied in situations where the data being considered takes the form of categorical variables such as gender, yes/no answers, job categories, and education levels. For instance, one can apply chi-square tests to find out if there exists any relationship between gender and the type of product that is referred to.. It can be used to test if the data from the observed frequency distribution corresponds to the data from the expected frequency distribution such as whether the observed number of students in various departments corresponds to an expected distribution based on some prior knowledge of the population. While t-test is concerned with the comparison of means, chi-square is concerned with frequencies, and it is normally applied in social sciences, health sciences, business and education since most of the variables involved are categorical. There are no preconditions for the use of chi-square except that the sample size should be large enough to yield dependable results, the values in each cell should be large enough and finally, the expected frequency in each cell should be 'large', meaning not less than 5. This is when chi-square is an elegant way of testing independence of two factors within a population.