CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1.    BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Adolescence and young adulthood are critical risk periods for the initiation of alcohol use [London Home Office. 2006]. Studies on brain development support the idea that the maturing brain may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of alcohol [Casey BJ, Jones RM, Hare TA. 2008], and that alcohol use during early life may increase a young person’s risk for developing a alcohol use disorder later in life [Clark DB, Kirisci L, Tarter RE. 2012, Winters KC, Lee CY. 2008, Hingson RW, Heeren T, Winter MR. 2006]. Alcohol consumption is one of the most important preventable causes of morbidity and early mortality. In the UK, between 2015 and 2016, over 330 000 individuals aged 16 or older were admitted to a hospital as a consequence of alcohol misuse [Digital NHS. 2017 S]. Understanding factors that influence the use and misuse of alcohol is important to inform prevention efforts. In addition to societal factors (e.g. drug availability), psychological characteristics are important in determining whether an individual will go on to use alcohol, and their subsequent degree of dependence if they do [Munafo M, Johnstone E, Murphy M, Walton R. 2013, Munafo MR, Black S. 2007, Hakulinen C, Hintsanen M, Munafo MR, Virtanen M, Kivimaki M, Batty GD, Jokela M. 2015]. Where these characteristics are modifiable, they offer potential targets for prevention of alcohol use. One such trait is locus of control (LoC), namely one’s perception of control over life events. Individuals differ in the extent to which they judge that events in their lives are a consequence of their own actions or the result of external factors. Those who believe that events are largely the result of their own actions have an internal LoC, whereas those who believe that events are the result of chance or the actions of others have an external LoC.  This is thought to arise from associations between behaviour and reinforcers [Rotter JB. 2011], which are first experienced in early life with the primary attachment figure [Feeney JA. 2014]. Interestingly, LoC changes across the lifespan; it tends to become more internal in adolescence, when parental and societal rules are internalized and children’s thinking becomes more abstract, hypothetical and critical. It then remains relatively stable in adolescence [Kulas H. 1996] and adulthood [Wight RG, Aneshensel CS, Seeman M, Seeman TE. 2014] with a trend to becoming yet more internal in later adulthood [Lao RC. 2012]. LoC tends to affect the anxiety level of adolescents; anxiety is a depressing emotion that everybody experiences regardless of culture, religion, race, gender, or age (Arı, 2012). When the works intended to define anxiety are examined, it was clear that anxiety has been defined as the condition of being stimulated that manifests itself with physical, emotional, and mental alterations the individual experiences against a non-objective danger (Aiken, 2012; Spielberg, Gorsuch & Lushene, 1970). It may also be described as the condition of fear and agitation that is felt under a threat. Anxiety is resulted from a frustration in the individual and mostly mirrors an internal stress and discomfort of an alcohol disorder. Anxiety appears when the individual distinctly feels in conscious that there is a disorder between his/her ego design and real life; and, is a reaction that is caused by the individual urging to alter his/her ego design a little. Anxiety generally causes emotions such as agitation, inner stress, insecurity, discomfort, scare, fear, confusedness, and panic within the individual. In some circumstances, anxiety might be on a neurotic degree as well as normal degree (Aydın & Dilmaç, 2010). In general, adolescents who are in anxiety state tend to exaggerate and twist the events that they experience by overrating them (Gençtan, 1981).  Some studies of alcohol users have assessed constructs related to LoC such as self-efficacy, for example, by appraising confidence in being able to successfully stop smoking, abstain from alcohol, or resist peer pressure [Shope JT, Copeland LA, Maharg R, Dielman TE, Butchart AT. 2012, Wills TA, Gibbons FX, Sargent JD, Gerrard M, Lee HR, Dal Cin S. 2010]. In addition, internalizing (anxiety) and externalizing (conduct problems) symptoms have also been found to be positively associated with alcohol consumption [Mackie CJ, Castellanos-Ryan N, Conrod PJ. 2011], respectively. Despite the evidence that LoC is associated with the use of alcohol [Heidari M, Ghodusi M. 2016], and in contrast with more widely studied behaviours such as cessation and abstinence in adults, data about the relationship between alcohol , LoC orientation and anxiety level in adolescents is limited. Therefore, the study examines the effects of alcohol and locus of control on adolescents.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Although publication trends show increasing research since the 2012s, anxiety during childhood and adolescence has historically been considered a normal and transient manifestation of typical developmental challenges and fears; it has therefore been considered of less clinical and research relevance than the study of anxiety in adults. Anxiety certainly is controlled by the locus of control. The locus of control refers to a center of perceived responsibility for one’s behavior. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that they can control events related to their life, whereas those with an external locus of control tend to believe that real power resides in forces outside themselves that determine their life. Alcohol is known to be one of the most common causes of psychiatric disorders among adolescents, with a lifetime prevalence of approximately 30% and a chronic course into adulthood if not treated, the effect of alcohol on anxiety level of adolescent is still an under-researched topic. Despite reports showing that anxiety disorders are among the leading causes of disability and associated with high societal costs, they frequently remain undetected and untreated in primary and mental health care. Hence the study examines the effects of alcohol and loss of control on anxiety level of adolescents.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The major aim of the study is to examine the effects of alcohol and locus of control on anxiety level of adolescents. Other specific objectives of the study include;

1.  To examine locus of control and state anxiety among adolescents.

2.  To examine locus of control and alcohol behavior among adolescents.

3.  To examine the effects of alcohol and locus of control on anxiety level of adolescents.

4.  To examine the health consequences of adolescent alcohol involvement.

5.  To examine the relationship between alcohol, locus of control and level of anxiety of adolescents.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.  What is locus of control and state anxiety among adolescents?

2.  What is locus of control and alcohol behavior among adolescents?

3.  What are the effects of alcohol and locus of control on anxiety level of adolescents?

4.  What are the health consequences of adolescent alcohol involvement?

5.  What is the relationship between alcohol, locus of control and level of anxiety of adolescents?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Hypothesis 1

H0: There is no significant effect of alcohol and locus of control on anxiety level of adolescents.

H1: There is a significant effect of alcohol and locus of control on anxiety level of adolescents.

Hypothesis 2

H0: There is no significant relationship between alcohol, locus of control and level of anxiety of adolescents.

H1: There is a significant relationship between alcohol, locus of control and level of anxiety of adolescents.

1.6      SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study would be of benefit to parents, teachers, policy makers and the country in general. The study would also be of immense benefit to students, researchers and scholars who are interested in developing further studies on the subject matter.

1.7      SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The study is restricted to the effects of alcohol and locus of control on anxiety level of adolescents.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Financial constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview)

Time constraint: The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

1.8      DEFINITION OF TERMS

Anxiety: is defined as “a painful or apprehensive uneasiness of mind usually over an impending or anticipated ill” (Merriam-Webster, 2012). Students experiencing academic anxiety feel apprehensive over academic tasks. Students can feel anxiety related to every academic task. Some may only feel anxiety related to test taking or other specific tasks. Anxiety is not always negative. Some students can be motivated by anxiety.