CHAPTERONE

INTRODUCTION

Backgroundof the Study

Economicsplays vital role in the development of rational decision making abilities onthe individuals, firms and the government of the State (country). Meaningfulknowledge of Economics could help individuals, firms, and government of thestate make rational decisions towards the achievement of their goals fornational development. Thus, the reason for introduction of Economics in thecurricula of secondary schools in Nigeria is not far- fetched.Many experts in the field of Economicsaccept that the best definition to the concept of Economics is the one byRobbins (Aderinto & Abdulahi, 2009; Chikezie, 2009). Robbins as far back as1932 refers to Economics as a social science which studies human behaviour as arelationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses. Thisdefinition by Robbins reveals different concepts in Economics which if wellunderstood explain what the study of Economics is all about and its benefits tomankind and the economy. As a social science the study of Economics deals withthe study of human behaviours in the society. In short human beings and theirbehaviours are to Economics what laboratory is to chemistry, biology andPhysics. Economics explains the behaviour of human beings in relation to scarceresources. Human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce meanswhich have alternative uses imply that the available resources determinepeople’s decision on what to eat, do or not to eat or do; Human reactions tohis needs are determined by the available resources.

From the foregoing, it could be deduced thatEconomics deals with the study of choices, opportunity cost, needs and wants ofpeople in the society. Pennington (1999) opines that Economics is the study ofchoices that people make to satisfy their needs and wants. Sharma (2012) refersto Economics as a subject that studies laws and principles which govern thefunctioning of an economy and its various parts; that is how a society decideson using its scarce resources to obtain the maximum possible satisfaction forthe members of the society whose wants for goods and services are unlimited.Consequently, Hall (2013) states that Economics is the study of howindividuals, firms and whole societies identify their most important needs,allocate and manage scarce resources in such a way that satisfy as many needsas possible. Economics as a Social Science deals with human behaviour andallocation of scarce resources.

Theabove explanation of the concept of Economics informs the contents of its loftyobjectives at secondary school level in Nigeria. Theobjectives of Economics in senior secondary schools as outlined by the FederalMinistry of Education (FME, 2008: ii & iii) include to enable students:

1. Understand basic economicprinciples and concepts as well as the tools for sound economic analysis;
2. Contribute intelligently todiscourse on economic reforms and development as they affect or would affectthe generality of Nigerians;
3. Understand the structure andfunctioning of economic institutions;
4. Appreciate the role ofpublic policies on national economy;
5. Develop the skills and alsoappreciate the basis for rational economic decisions;
6. Become sensitized toparticipate actively in national economic advancement through entrepreneurship,capital market and so on;
7. Understand the role andstatus of Nigeriaand other African countries in international economic relationships;
8. Appreciate the problemsencountered by developing countries in their effort towards economicadvancement.

Acursory look at the objectives of Economics explains its relevance toindividuals, firms and the nation. The relevance of Economics in individual,firms and national development cannot be over-emphasized. The study ofEconomics helps man to develop his way of thinking as to be able to analyzeeconomic problems of the society for decision taking (Chikezie, 2009). Chikeziefurther reiterated that the experience derived from the study of Economics is usedto give practical advice to individuals, firms and the government.

Thestudy of Economics helps the individuals, companies, firms and governments intaking decisions that would help the realization of their wants and needs. Ithelps the government in making decision on which business to embark upontowards building the economy for national development. On the parts of firmsand industries, the knowledge of Economics helps them to take decisions on whatto produce, for whom to produce, how to produce and efficiency of resource use(Aderinto & Abdullahi, 2009). Thus, Economics has some laudable loftyobjectives which prove its position as a social science.

Thelevel of achievement of the objectives of Economics at secondary school levelcould be determined by the students’ achievement in the subject matter.Achievement according to Hornby (2001) is academic accomplishments ofstudents as a result of exertion of efforts, skills, perseverance and practice.Itis the degree or level of success attained at the end of an academic endeavour(Iwundu, 2001). Corroborating this view, Uroko (2010) avers that academicachievement of the individual is learning outcome of the individual. Thisincludes the knowledge, skills and ideas acquired and/ or gained through the courseof the study within and outside the classroom situations. Achievementexplains educational efforts of the students (Ugwoke, 2014). Ugwoke furtherreiterates that it refers to the level of success made in academic endeavour. Achievement in education could be related to academicsuccess recorded by the learner in the teaching and learning process.  It could be seen as the success students makein their academic pursuit. For example, if a student is able to pass WestAfrican School Certificate Examination (WASCE) at A, B and C levels, it can besaid that the student has made success in the said examination. But if thestudent in question has made Ds, Es and Fs, it can be said that the student didnot succeed in the said examination. This implies that the yardstick formeasuring students’ level of academic achievement is by assessing the academicperformance of the individual through test (Ernest-Ehibudu & Opurum, 2013).

Despitethe importance of Economics as a secondary school subject, students’ achievementin the subject has declined tremendously. Evidence of this poor achievement ofstudents in Economics has been documented by the West African ExaminationCouncil’s (WAEC) Chief Examiners’ report (2007; 2009 & 2012). The documentstates that students’ achievement in Economics is below average. However, Inthe chief examiner’s report in 2002; 2003; 2007 and 2009May/June WASSCE andalso November/December 2004 WASSCE, it was stated that the overall performanceof the candidates was fair and the following weaknesses were noticeable amongthe candidates: Poor coverage of the syllabus, inability to draw and labeldiagrams properly, inadequate knowledge of the subject matter, outrightmisinterpretation of some questions and disobedience to the rubrics. Apart fromthe above general problems, WAEC chief examiners’ report (2004) states thatstudents’ achievement was below average on questions on production possibilitycurve (PPC). Similarly, WAEC chief examiners’ reports (2009 and 2012) statethat students’ achievements on taxation and revenue concepts were very poor.The reason for the poor achievement has been attributed to inability of thestudents to arrange their points in an orderly manner (WAEC Chief Examiners’report, 2009).   

Achievement of the objectives of Economics insecondary schools can be influenced by certain factors. Among these factors arethe instructional strategy used in teaching the subject, students’ interest,gender and school location (Okeke, 2013). Accordingto Nuhu (2014) instructional strategies are the plans for success in classroominstruction. Nuhu further explains that instructional strategy involves thesequencing or ordering of the techniques a teacher intends using in a class. Instructionalstrategies refer to planned ways on how to carry out teaching and learningexercise for a better academic achievement. Instructional strategies employsome teaching methods and techniques to foster learning (Ezegbe, 2014).Teaching methods broadly deal with all aspects of what happens in aclassroom during a teaching learning session and even some times before andafter it, including preparation for and remedial work after (Eze, 1998). On the other hand, a teaching technique is a specific wayor aspect of a particular method of teaching (Mezieobi, Fubara & Mezieobi,2013). However, Nuhu (2014) refers to teaching techniques as the specificactivities or actions performed by the teacher in the classroom to achieve thegoal of instruction.

Some of the commonly identified instructional strategies include:discovery, value clarification, discussion, simulation and game, anddramatization (National Teachers’ Institute, NTI, 2006). The NTI has therefore recommendeda new approach for the teaching and learning of Social Sciences in schoolscalled the learner-centered instructional strategy. According to the FederalMinistry of Education (FME, 2008), the instructional strategies for teachingEconomics as a living subject should include collaborative, interactive andlearner-oriented instructional strategies. The FME further breaks theinstructional strategies to include future’s wheel, entre education, conceptmapping, field trips, co-operative learning instructional strategies amongothers.

However,most Economics teachers in secondary schools go about using the lectureinstructional strategy. This proposition is in line with Ogunleye (2002) andIgbokwe (2010) who states that the dominant instructional strategy adopted byteachers in developing countries like Nigeria is the lectureinstructional strategy. Lecture instructional strategyrefers to an instructional strategy where the teacher claims an all knowingposition and authoritatively gives instructions to the learners who are passivelisteners (Akpochafo, 2014). It involves the teacher telling students factsabout a particular topic ( e.g concept of revenue) and expecting those studentsto recount what they have been told (Aguokagbue, 2006). Lecture stresses on thetraditional view that the learner is almost blank and it is the teacher’s roleto impart knowledge to fill the blank by merely telling his students whofunction as passive listeners (Oyebola, 2014). Lecture as an instructionalstrategy has many advantages. it can be used in teaching large class, enhanceseconomy of time, easy coverage of content, creates interest and appreciation onlearners and supplements and enriches materials found in students’ textbooks(Ezeani, 1998). 

However, lecture instructional strategy encourages rotememorization of concepts instead of making learning participatory and/ orinteractive (Ezegbe, Okeke & Chikwelu, 2013). It focuses entirely onintellectual development and ignores experiential learning. It teaches studentshow to succeed on standardized tests and relies mostly on the use of the intellect.Obviously, this instructional strategy has failed to bring about the desiredoutcome of producing thinking students. Thus, some scholars have blamedstudents’ poor achievement to the dominant use of lecture instructionalstrategy (Torty & Offorma, 2013). Therefore, there is the need for teachersto have a change of style in order to be able to meet the demands of the 21stcentury students. In the light of this, an alternative teaching strategy likeconcept mapping could be used.   

Concept mapping originates from concept maps.  According to Rao (2015), concept maps arediagrammatic representations which show meaningful relationships betweenconcepts in the form of propositions which are linked together by words, circles,and cross links. According to Horton, McConney, Gallo, Woods, Senn, and Hamelin(1993), concept mappings are identified as two-dimensional, hierarchical,node-linked diagrams that depict verbal conceptual or declarative knowledge insuccinct visual or graphical forms. Thus, concept mapping is a structuredprocess focused on a topic or construct of interest involving input from one ormore participants that produces an interpretable pictorial view of their ideasand concepts and how these are interrelated (Yusuf, 2009). In concept mapsideas are arranged hierarchically with the super ordinate concepts at the topof the map, and subordinate at the bottom which are less inclusive than higherones. “Cross links” are used to connect different segments of the concepts’hierarchy, which indicate syntheses of related concepts, a new interpretationof old ideas, and some degree of creative thinking.

Learning through concept mapping is explained by theconstructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978), as a hand on task learning thatencourages experiential learning. Stoica, Moranu and Miron (2011) opines thatconstructivist learning theory argues that new knowledge should be integratedinto existing structures in order to be remembered and receive meaning. Conceptmapping stimulates this process by making it explicit and by requiring the learnerto pay attention to the relationship between concepts. In concept mapping instructionalstrategy the relationships or inter-relationship of a new concept/idea withexisting or already known concept/idea is presented diagrammatically and in ahierarchical order (Smith & Dwyer, 1995). Hierarchical presentation ofideas usually from simple to complex could enhance students’ achievement andinterest in a subject. When this is true, it is the intention of the researcherto investigate the effect of concept mapping on students’ achievement andinterest in Economics in secondary schools.

Interest is an importantvariable in the teaching and learning of Economics. Interest is a persistinginclination to be attentive and enjoy some activities or contents (Chukwu,2002). Interest according to Hidi& Renninger(2006) is a relatively enduring predisposition to re-engage with particularcontent, such as objects, events, ideas and task. Corroborating this view,Ainley cited in Raymond (2013)defines interest as a feeling that accompanies or causes special attention toan object or class of objects. According to Torty and Offorma (2013) interestis emotionally oriented behavioural trait which determines a student’s urge andvigor to tackle educational programmes or other activities. Interest refers tothe degree of likeness a student demonstrates over a subject of study thatgives him/her the motivation to put in more efforts in the subject for a betteracademic achievement. Suitableteaching methods increase students’ interest which leads to higher achievement.(Chukwu, 2002).  Bakare (1991) opines thatinterest is useful in predicting the success and the satisfaction which anindividual is likely to obtain from engaging in certain activities. Accordingto Ezegbe, Ikwumelu & Okeke (2012) students do well in a subject they areinterested in more than the one they have no interest in. It is thereforenecessary that appropriate instructional strategy should be used to enhancestudents’ interest in learning Economics.

Apart from interest,gender is another vital variable in teaching and learning. Gender accordingto Uzoegwu (2004) is varied socially and culturally constructed roles,qualities and behaviour that are ascribed to men and women of differentsocieties. Okeke (2008) refers to genderas the social or cultural characteristics, rotes or behaviour which males andfemales are known for by society. Onyegegebu (2008) defines gender as the sumtotal of cultural values, attitudes, roles practices and characteristics basedon sex. Onyegegebu further described sex as the innate biological differencesbetween women and men. Gender in this study is socialdefinition of sex roles rather than the biological distinction between male andfemale. Thus some arguments emphasize that male read certain subjects and someothers are reserved specifically for females. Thus, attributing failures orsuccesses of students to some prejudices that some subjects are made for males(masculine subject) while others are made for males (feminine subjects). On theissue of gender and achievement, many researchers shared divergent views(Okeke, 2013). Accordingly, Onuoha (2010) found that male and female studentshave almost equal achievement in social studies when exposed to concept mappinginstructional strategy.

On the other hand, Egbe, Mba and Nebechukwu (2010)state that gender is a significant factor in the achievement of students indrama in favour of males.  Although some researchers, Ugwuanyi (2012) reported that girlsdid better than boys in students’ conceptual understanding of force and motion.Ndina and Wagbara (2012) showed that girls had greater influence on theirattitude towards chemistry than boys. On the other hand, Ukozor (2011) reportedthat boys achieved better than girls in sciences. However, other researchers,Nzewi ( 2010) and Okeke (2007)  showedthat gender has insignificant effect on science achievement.These unresolved controversies amongresearchers on the influence of gender on students’ achievement make this studynecessary.

Another important variablein teaching and learning is the school location. School location refers towhere a school is sited.  Ezeudu(2003) states that school location is the urban-rural setting of a school. Itshows whether a school is sited in the town or in the rural area. A school thatis planted in town such as Community High School, Emene, Girls’ SecondarySchool, Emene, New, Havens Boys’ School, Enugu could have students fromdifferent backgrounds such the poor and the rich children co-existing in aschool as a result of heterogeneous nature of the town environment. Students inthe urban area could have the privilege of having qualified teachers,facilities that foster learning. On the other hand, schools sited in the ruralarea like Community Secondary School, Mbu, CommunitySecondary School, Umualor, and Community Secondary School, Eha-Ohuala could bedominated by students from poor backgrounds and may have poorly staffed schoolsand poor facilities as a result of the underdeveloped nature of the ruralareas. These factors could influence students’ academic achievement.

Consequently, there are disagreements among scholarson the influence of school location on students’ interest and achievement. Somescholars argue that school location has no significant influence on students’achievement  (Okeke, 2013 and Okonkwo,2014). Some scholars reported that school location had effect on students’achievement. Oyedokun and James (2001) and Orukokan and Balogun (2001) statethat urban school students with available science facilities performed betterthan their rural counterparts where such facilities are lacking. On thecontrary, Otor (2013) states that rural students performed better than theirurban counterparts when exposed to concept mapping strategy in teachingstructure of matter and energy changes in chemistry. On the other hand somescholars maintain that both the urban and rural students could have almostequal achievement when exposed to a practical instructional strategy (Okeke,2013; Okonkwo, 2014).    

Inall, studies have shown that effect of concept mapping instructional strategyon students’ achievement has been investigated in other areas of study (Adesola& Salako, 2013; Eriba, 2013; Wushishi, Danjuma & Usman, 2013). However,from the reviewed empirical studies, little or no study has been conducted onthe effect of concept mapping instructional strategy on students’ achievementand interest in Economics in secondary schools in Enugu Education Zone, Enugu State, Nigeria with particular referenceto gender and school location their interaction effect with treatment toinfluence students’ achievement and interest in Economics. To this end, thisstudy investigated the effect of concept mapping instructional strategy onstudents’ achievement and interest in Economics in secondary schools in EnuguEducation Zone, Enugu State