CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Borders are key aspects of human life and, at about the same time, elements of individual-society relations all over the world. Elements of humanity have always been divided and also united by a system of borders at all geographical levels since ancient times.1.

As a result, the recognition that boundaries are used to describe complex social and territorial issues has had a significant impact on border research. Nigerian-neighboring-state trans-border trade is usually favorable to both parties. To compensate for the deficits in Nigeria, Nigerian traders import a large quantity of grain foods, fruits, tubers (yams, cassava, potatoes), and animals from Niger, Benin, and Chad. In addition, Nigeria exports manufactured home goods and construction materials to these nations.2.

The global  exchange that takes place between countries remains a vital aspect of the economy. The transgressions that come with all of these economic transactions are unlikely to bring down the entire system, as the border shutdown appears to imply. It's worth noting that millions of Nigerians have lived in peace in most West African and other African countries for years, with some even fully integrating into their host nations. In Côte d'Ivoire, there are roughly two million Nigerians, three million in Cameroon, and up to 30 percent of the population in Benin and Niger are Nigerian. 3.

However, the upholding of the ECOWAS Treaty on the free movement of goods and people in the West African region is of greater importance to Nigeria. However, just days after being sworn into office for a second term, on the 12th of June, 2019, President Muhammadu Buhari stated in his speech that, in order to reduce security problems at the country's outer borders, particularly smuggling of petroleum products out of the region and inflow of small arms, firearms, and drugs into the nation, as well as defend the country's local manufacturers, all Nigerian land borders must be shut. 26.

This policy took effect on August 20, 2019, when the Nigerian government was forced to close all land borders with its nearby nations of Cameroon, Chad, Benin Republic, and Niger Republic due to the increase in organised crime, alleged security problems, smuggling, occurrence of illegal crossborder activities, unregistered migration, and abuse of global trade practices. 25.

The ongoing closure of land borders for more than a year has prompted many questions regarding the legality and core of the Economic Community of West African States Agreement, which allows free movement of people, goods, and commodities across the area. Since its founding in 1975 by Nigeria and Togo through their corresponding Heads of State, General Yakubu Gowon of Nigeria and General Eyadema of Togo, ECOWAS has stayed a collective body with a number of institutions, including the ECOWAS Legislature, ECOWAS Court, ECOWAS Passport, and Geographic Force 32.

Nonetheless, the traditional goal for regional integration has always been fraught with difficulties. As a result, violations of the Organization's treaty on the free movement of commodities and people, as well as allowing for the smuggling of weapons and drugs, human trafficking, and trans-border terrorism, to name a few, have presented serious dangers to member nations' peace, stability, and economy 26. Border closure, on the other hand, remains a dreadful decision made by nations in extraordinary circumstances, particularly when it is intended to defend a state's territorial integrity. However, border closure as a means of combating illicit trafficking and criminal activities has proven to be a difficult task, particularly in Africa, where the continent's established porous borders are mostly populated by societies of the same and various ethnicities, who rely on, engage in, and stay alive on trans-border companies and attempting to smuggle activities.

As a result, the Nigerian state's closing of the border for over a year has exacerbated the state of unease or going to suffer, as nearly all border societies have been hardest hit, with vast numbers of residents losing their jobs and a large percentage of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) rooted and even moved somewhere else. 25. Similarly, the continuous closure may have resulted in severe socio economic hardship for residents of border settlements in Nigeria and the West African sub-region. Any attempt by the Nigerian government to close these land borders farther or for a longer period of time might be interpreted as a sign of the Nigerian state's discontent with the cooperation of her neighboring states and territories in criminal activities 25.

At the same hand, the lengthening of the closure period at this vital juncture could be interpreted as a comprehensive socio economic denial to the many affected nations, as the same dreadful pattern could be retaliated against Nigeria by other African states (if they become aggressive) in the coming years. 26.  It is on this the study centers on the Nigerian border closure impact on West African state (1999-2021)

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since Nigeria's borders are porous, the government's policy of border closure has aided in the escalation of products trafficking into the country, allowing traders to avoid excise fees and customs and fueling illegal smugglers. Customs officials stopped the delivery of gasoline products to filling stations within 20 kilometers of the border last year to curb fuel smuggling. Nigeria may be losing millions of naira to traffickers who fail to pay the different taxes owed to the state.. According to Ahmed 27 Nigeria is shooting itself in the foot with this border closure, according to the Nigerian government, which has opened up a huge source of revenue for the security personnel stationed at these crossings. Once it's past midnight, security agents will take fees from potential merchants and unlock the gates for them to travel through. They will do this till early morning, when the borders will be closed immediately. " As a result, these are the funds that should be provided to the administration for the general welfare of the people. Nigeria's inflation rate increased by 11.61 percent year on year in October 2019, the greatest in over 18 months. The increase was mainly due to an increase in the cost of food as a result of the closure of the borders to cheaper imported products. It is on this the study centres on the nigerian border closure impact on west African state (1999-2021)

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The general objective of this study was to assess the impact of land border closure on the socioeconomic development of people in Nigeria metropolis, while the specific objective was to determine the effect of land border closure on the standard of living of people in the study area

1) To examine the negative impact of border closure on socio cultural, economic and political development in Nigeria

2) To examine the border relations between Nigeria and her immediate neighbors since independence 1960-till date

3) To examine the impact of land border closure on West Africa 1999-2021

4) To outline the Challenges of Managing Porous Borders and Illegal Routes in Nigeria

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1) What is the negative impact of border closure on socio cultural, economic and political development in Nigeria

2) what is the border relations between Nigeria and her immediate neighbors since independence 1960-till date?

3) What is the impact of land border closure on West Africa states 1999-2021?

4) What are the Challenges of Managing Porous Borders and Illegal Routes in Nigeria?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is of importance because nothing much has been written on the Nigeria Border closure impact on West African state (1999-2021). This priority on Nigeria and its neighboring countries. Therefore, the research would be a major contribution to the existing body of knowledge on matters between Nigeria and its border lands

1.6 SCOPE THE STUDY

The Study Would Cover the Nigerian Border Closure Impact On West African State (1999-2021)

1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Hegemonic Stability Theory

The hegemonic stability theory was espoused by: Stephen Krasner, Robert Gilpin, George Modelski, and Robert Keohane respectively. The essential proposition of this theory is that powerful states or nations deploy the influence and other resources at their disposal to compel weaker states or nations to behave or act in accordance to the dictates of the powerful or strong state. This particular theoretical framework remains suitable to explain the decision of the Nigerian government in closing all its land borders towards achieving and strengthening its domestic economic, security and political interests in all sense. However, hegemonic stability theorists believed that other countries will value order made at the outlay of some autonomy and benefits which the order has made possible to be justified; and ceding some ability to act unilaterally 56. In this regard, the strongest state bears much of the responsibility for articulating and enforcing a specific order in exchange for gaining or realizing the type of order it actually desires at any given point in time. And at the same time, smaller or weaker nations will go along in sacrificing autonomy for the material benefits which order gives room to or allows 56. Therefore, the hegemonic stability theory (HST) exists to maintain stability and order whereas the function of borders is to define the area to be used when calculating comparative advantages or benefits. In addition, trade and immigration policies actually depend on the nature of the hegemony of a state; and therefore, pursuant to this study, the hegemony of Nigeria in the West African sub-region, remains the strongest and most giant economy, largest population and the strongest military force. This definitely gives Nigeria the main confidence to close all its land borders towards compelling a total obedience from her weaker neighbouring states that have alleged and solely blamed for illegal and undocumented migration, importation of contraband goods through illegal routes and harbouring of various criminals and terrorists in the region.

Theory Of Comparative Advantage

This work is hinged on the Theory of Comparative Advantage which was discovered and developed by David Ricardo (1772 - 1823). However, other proponents who contributed immensely towards the development of the theory include James Mill (1773 - 1836) and Robert Torrens (1780 - 1864). Ricardo considered two countries like Nigeria and Niger Republic for instance whereby Nigeria produces certain goods or commodities at a cheaper rate and with higher specialization whereby Niger Republic may equally be specialized in the production of other goods which Nigeria does not produce. This brings the two countries together for international trade probably Cross Border Trade since Nigeria and Niger Republic share boundary together 44. However, when it is stated that, international trade depends on the differences in comparative advantage one may explore not absolute cost of production in the two countries. For instance, England might be able to raise Coal at one-half of the price of labour and abstinence needed in France45. Therefore, this will not render it profitable for France to purchase or supply Coal from England. On this note, it is good for a country to import commodities from another country where the cost of production of those commodities cost less than it would be at home. This by extension necessitated the trading, transaction and relating with one country by another perhaps Nigeria and Niger Republic. Whereas closing the border between countries will disconnect one from the other. Ricardo cited an instance that; Two men can both make shoes and hats and one is superior to the other in both employments but in making hats, he can only have exceeded his competitor by one-fifth or 20% and in making shoes he can excel him by one-third or 33%: will it not be in the interest of both that the superior man should employ himself exclusively in making shoes and the inferior man in making hats? The above instance can be applied between countries or among nation states not even between individuals as portrayed in the above indention. When such model was adopted between Nigeria and Niger Republic, Foreign Trade or Cross Border Trade will benefit both countries, increases the revenue generation through tariffs and allow the import of commodities and other goods at a cheaper rate as well as provides employment to so many people in both countries.

1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW

A Study by Adesina 25 border closure policy and socio-economic development in nigeria: the unintended consequences. Policy making is one of the responsibilities of the modern governments through which development agenda are initiated. However, every decision taken by any government has its implications which could either be positive or negative depending on the spirit of such decision. Consequently, on 20th August 2019, the Nigerian government, under the administration of President Buhari, came up with the policy of border closure where the country partially closed all its land borders with Benin, Togo, Niger, Cameroon and Chad  citing the irate level of smuggling of goods into the country, especially staple food commodities like rice, cooking (vegetable) oil, poultry, tomato, flour and pasta as her reasons. The closure of Nigeria’s land borders has now been fully consolidated – with further restrictions on import and export of goods through land borders. Arising from the above, there has been an argument and counter-arguments over the implication of the recent policy. Thus, the study generally examined the impacts of the recent (2019) border closure on socioeconomic development in Nigeria. To appraise this, the study adopted Elite Theory to interrogate the implication of this recent policy on economic growth and development. The method of research was anchored on ex-post facto design utilizing qualitative data, and the deductive method of data analysis was adopted. The study revealed that the policy was untimely established by the government and identified some of its implications to include; unprecedented rise in the prices of food/goods, loss of employment/businesses, corruption and increase in smuggling of goods among others. The study recommends that government should revert this policy for the interest of the national economy, take care of the security agents along the border areas and provide the factors that could cushion the effect of border closure before embarking on it.

A study by Jancsics 72 aim at determining the effect of land border closure on the socio-economic development of people in Saki metropolis, Oyo state, Nigeria. The economic development was measured through improved standard of living and level of income. A descriptive Survey design was employed, through the use of structured questionnaire on a sample of one hundred and eighty (180) farmers. One hundred and sixty six (166) copies of the questionnaire was correctly filled and returned. One hypothesis was formulated and regression analysis was employed in estimating the regression models with the aid of SPSS version 20. The findings revealed that the result from the probability of f-statistic (14.924) and the coefficient of determination (Adjusted R2) which values at 0.137 shows that although the model of the research is statistically significant; the result indicates that land border closure has a negative effect on the socio-economic lives of people in the study area. Based on the findings, we recommend among other things that the policy of land border closure should be revisited.

1.9 SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY

Data for this study will come from the primary and secondary data. The primary data will be generated through the field survey using structured questionnaire as a major research instrument. The secondary data on the other hand will be obtained from relevant literatures ranging from textbooks, journals, articles, periodicals, seminar paper dissertation.